Context of International Relations:

1. **Geopolitics** - The structure of world politics and the balance of power between countries.

Introduction: Geopolitics is a subject that combines international relations, politics, geography and the balance of power of states. It analyzes the interaction of a state's geographical location, natural resources, military power, economic power and other political, social, cultural factors, which determine the structure of international politics and relations between states.

Basic Elements of Geopolitics:

1. Geographical Location: A state's geographical location influences its foreign policy and security strategy. Russia, for example, is making military preparations on the one hand because of its border with China, while on the other it is focusing on exploiting its natural resources and energy.

2. Natural Resources: Natural resources like oil, gas, minerals, water resources etc. can be the main source of power of a state. Countries like Saudi Arabia and Venezuela use their oil and gas resources as powerful tools in international relations.

3. Military Power: Military power affects a state's global influence and security strategy. Superpower states such as the US and China influence world politics through their military might.

4. Economic Power: A strong economy plays an important role in trade relations, aid and influence among states. Economically powerful countries such as the European Union and the United States are influential in shaping the international economy and policy.

5. Political ideology and culture: Political ideology and culture, such as democracy, autocracy, or religious ideology, play an important role in international relations and geopolitics. For example, in the Islamic Republic of Iran, politics is closely related to religious ideals.

Importance of Geopolitics:

1. Balance of Power: Geopolitics plays an important role in shaping the balance of power in international politics. Different states use their military and economic power to maintain the balance of power. For example, the balance of power between the United States and China affects the formation of international policies around the world.

2. International Conflicts: International conflicts can arise due to conflict of geopolitical interests between states. An example is the conflict in the Middle East over control over oil and gas resources.

3. Ethical and humanitarian issues: In some cases, the geopolitical strategy of states can be important for solving humanitarian problems. For example, global humanitarian aid and development projects can be part of geopolitical interests.

Key examples:

1. Geopolitics of the Middle East: The Middle East, especially as an oil-rich region, is an important part of world politics. The constructive power competition among countries in the region and the conflict of interests of international powers are affecting international geopolitics.

2. China and India: Border disputes and economic competition between China and India are a key element of South Asian geopolitics. Both states are trying to expand their regional influence by increasing their military and economic power.

3. Russia-Ukraine Conflict: The ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine is an important geopolitical issue in world politics. Russia's territorial interests and the conflict over Ukraine's sovereignty are affecting the structure of international relations and the balance of power.

Conclusion:

Geopolitics is an important and complex issue that affects the structure of international relations and the balance of power between states. A state's geographic location, natural resources, military power, economic power, and political ideology form the background of global politics. These elements play an important role in international conflict, balance of power, and humanitarian problem solving.

2. **Multilateralism** - the framework of international relations with the participation of more than one state.

**Introduction:**

Multilateralism is a framework of international relations that consists of multiple states. It works through the participation and cooperation of different countries in solving a global or regional problem. The main objective of multilateralism is to ensure joint efforts and cooperation in solving international problems, so that if the problems cannot be solved by a single state, they can be effectively dealt with by the joint efforts of several states.

**KEY ELEMENTS OF MULTILATERALITY:**

1. **Collective Initiative:** Multilateralism works by the combined efforts of different countries, which help in situations that cannot be done by a single country. For example, the Paris Agreement is a multilateral initiative to combat climate change.

2. **International Organizations:** Multilateral organizations like the United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Health Organization (WHO) etc. help in framing international relations. These organizations play an important role in meeting the requirements of international cooperation and regulation.

3. **Solution of global problems:** Multilateralism ensures international cooperation and unified response to global problems like terrorism, climate change, pandemics, world trade etc. 

4. **Laws and Policies:** Multilateral agreements and policies form agreements and general rules between different countries, which keep international relations orderly and regulated.

**IMPORTANCE OF MULTILATERALITY:**

1. **Tackling Global Issues:** Multilateralism is an effective way to address global challenges, such as climate change, international terrorism, and health epidemics. It is difficult for a single state to tackle these problems, but it is possible through collective efforts.

2. **Balance of Power:** Multilateralism is important in maintaining the balance of power in international relations. It reduces the dominance of a single power and establishes a balance between different states.

3. **Conflict Prevention and Resolution:** Multilateral organizations and platforms play an important role in international conflict resolution. For example, UN peacekeeping missions help to establish peace in various conflict zones.

4. **Trade and Economy:** Multilateral trade agreements and economic cooperation are helpful in improving global trade and economy. The World Trade Organization (WTO) plays a key role in international trade regulation and development.

**Challenges of Multilateralism:**

1. **Political Interests:** Mutual political interests of different states can sometimes hamper the multilateral decision-making process. Achieving a workable solution may be difficult due to the conflicting interests of states.

2. **Lack of coordination:** Multilateral negotiations and decision-making processes can be complicated and slow due to different countries and cultural differences.

3. **Deprivation of Advantage:** Small countries may sometimes be deprived of realizing their interests due to the influence of large countries. The dominance of powerful countries sometimes hinders the establishment of equitable multilateral solutions.

4. **Relationship instability:** In the changing environment of international relations, multilateral agreements and cooperation can be unstable at times, making it difficult to ensure long-term viability.

**Key example:**

1. **United Nations (UN):** The United Nations is a multilateral organization that works to maintain international peace and security. It resolves international issues through various member states.

2. **Paris Climate Agreement:** A multilateral agreement for the global fight against climate change agreed upon by countries around the world.

3. **World Trade Organization (WTO):** WTO works to regulate and preserve international trade, expand and resolve global trade through multilateral trade agreements.

4. **GEC (G20):** A group of the world's major economic powers that engages in multilateral negotiations and cooperation for global economic stability and development.

**Conclusion:**

Multilateralism is an important structure of international relations that consists of the participation of more than one state. It ensures collective efforts and cooperation in solving global and regional problems. Although multilateralism has its own challenges, it serves as a powerful tool to ensure international peace, security, and economic development. Multilateralism with the participation and coordination of different states makes the structure of international relations orderly and effective.

3. **Security Cooperation** - States cooperate to ensure each other's security.

**Introduction:**

Security cooperation is a process of mutual assistance and cooperation between several countries for the sake of security. It is an important part of international relations that ensures concerted efforts and cooperation among countries to address security challenges. Security cooperation helps states ensure their security, combat terrorism, armed conflict, crime, and other security threats.

**KEY ELEMENTS OF SECURITY COOPERATION:**

1. **Principal Purpose:** The primary purpose of security cooperation is to ensure mutual security among states and jointly address security challenges. It also includes joint strategy development and security information sharing among states.

2. **Technical Assistance:** States may provide each other with technology, training, and military assistance. For example, having advanced technology and training makes a country stronger against terrorism or cyber attacks.

3. **INFORMATION EXCHANGE:** An important part of security cooperation is information exchange. States share security-related information with each other, which can help prevent terrorist activities and other security threats.

4. **Organizational Structure:** Various international and regional organizations and forums are formed for security cooperation. For example, NATO, Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), and CELAC work to address various regional security challenges.

**IMPORTANCE OF SECURITY COOPERATION:**

1. **Prevention of Terrorism:** Terrorism is a global problem and international cooperation is crucial to combat it. States prevent and combat terrorist acts against each other through security cooperation.

2. **Border Security:** Security cooperation plays an essential role in countering border crime and smuggling. States assist each other in controlling borders and combating illegal activities.

3. **Military Cooperation:** Cooperation in military training and joint military operations enhances the military capabilities of states and develops integrated defense strategies. For example, participation in joint military exercises and operations enhances international security related experience.

4. **Epidemics and Health Crises:** States cooperate with each other during epidemics or health crises, such as exchanging information and providing assistance to organizations. A notable example is international health cooperation during the Covid-19 pandemic.

**Challenges of Security Cooperation:**

1. **Conflicts of Political Interests:** Conflicting political interests of different states can reduce the effectiveness of security cooperation. The security cooperation process can be complex and slow due to conflicting interests of multiple states.

2. **Confidentiality of Information:** Maintaining confidentiality when sharing security related information can be a challenge. States must protect their own privacy when sharing security information with each other.

3. **Destabilization of relations:** In the changing environment of international relations, instability of security cooperation may arise. The arrival of new political leaders and changing international conditions may affect the effectiveness of cooperation.

4. **Effectiveness of Organizations:** The effectiveness and influence of international security organizations may be limited. Some organizations play only a symbolic role and cannot provide practical solutions.

**Key example:**

1. **NATO (NATO):** The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a multilateral security cooperation organization that adopts a collective defense strategy to ensure the security of member states.

2. **Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO):** The SCO is a regional security organization that promotes cooperation among member states in countering terrorism, separatism, and extremism.

3. **European Union (EU):** The EU promotes security cooperation among member states through security and defense policy and helps shape the overall security framework.

4. **International Police Cooperation (INTERPOL):** INTERPOL ensures cooperation and information sharing among states against international crimes, such as trafficking, terrorism, and other criminal activities.

**Conclusion:**

Security cooperation is an essential part of international relations that helps ensure security among multiple states. States address security challenges through mutual assistance, information sharing, and military and organizational cooperation. Although security cooperation has its challenges, it plays an important role in ensuring global peace, security and stability. Security cooperation makes the framework of international relations stronger and more effective.

4. **International Organizations** - United Nations, NATO, European Union etc.

International organizations provide a framework for relations, cooperation, and problem solving among states. These organizations play an important role in global peace, security, economic development, and humanitarian assistance. The characteristics, objectives and functions of various international organizations are as follows:

### **United Nations**

**ROLE AND OBJECTIVE:**

The United Nations (UN) was founded in 1945 and aims to ensure international peace and security, protect human rights, and promote global development. The United Nations is a multilateral organization made up of 193 member states.

**Original Company:**

- **General Assembly:** Representatives of the member states of the United Nations participate here and discuss and take decisions on international questions.

- **Security Council:** It works to protect international peace and security. Composed of five permanent members (United States, United Kingdom, France, Russia, China) and ten elected members.

- **International Court of Justice:** settles disputes between states on the basis of international law.

- **United Nations Secretariat (Secretariat):** Manages the administrative activities of the United Nations and is headed by the Secretary-General.

**Program:**

- **Peacekeeping Missions:** The United Nations conducts peacekeeping missions to establish peace in various conflict zones.

- **Humanitarian Assistance:** Provides humanitarian assistance to respond to disasters, diseases and crises.

- **International Development:** Supports education, health, environment and other development projects.

### **NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)**

**ROLE AND OBJECTIVE:**

NATO is a military organization established in 1949 mainly to ensure the security of the North Atlantic region. It is a security cooperation organization made up of 30 member states.

**Main objective:**

- **Military Cooperation:** Ensuring military cooperation and security among member states.

- **Cooperation:** Providing assistance to other member states in case of an attack against one member state.

- **Military Training and Activities:** Conducting joint military exercises and training.

**Program:**

- **Collective Defense:** NATO member states provide defense assistance to each other.

- **Defense Strategy:** Develops and implements a coordinated defense strategy among member states.

- **JOURNALISTIC TRAINING:** Provides training and cooperation in addressing various international security challenges.

### **European Union**

**ROLE AND OBJECTIVE:**

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic organization formed to ensure economic integration and political cooperation among European countries. It consists of 27 member states.

**Main objective:**

- **Economic Integration:** Ensuring coordination of trade, markets, and economic policies among member states.

- **Political Cooperation:** Enhancing cooperation among member states in international politics and security.

- **Protection of fundamental rights:** Prioritize the protection of human rights and social development.

**Program:**

- **Economic Market:** Facilitates trade between member states within the single market and removes trade barriers.

- **Security and Defence:** Ensures international security through the European Security and Defense Policy.

- **International Relations:** Participates in various international agreements and collaborations at the global level.

### **Other Important International Organizations:**

- **World Trade Organization (WTO):** Sets the rules and principles of international trade and settles trade-related disputes.

- **International Monetary Fund (IMF):** Assists in maintaining global financial stability and economic problems of member states.

- **World Health Organization (WHO):** Works to address global health issues and ensure health policy and development.

### **Conclusion:**

International organizations provide a framework for cooperation, peace, security, and development among states. The United Nations, NATO, the European Union, and other international organizations play an important role in solving global problems. They make the framework of international relations strong and effective, as well as help ensure international peace and security.

5. **Trade War** – Economic competition and conflict between states.

**Introduction:**

A trade war is a situation in which two or more countries impose trade restrictions and tariffs against each other, with the aim of gaining financial advantage or achieving political goals. Trade wars lead to deterioration of international trade relations, affecting the global economy and affecting various domestic industries and markets.

**KEY ELEMENTS OF TRADE WARS:**

1. **Imposition of Tariffs:** One of the main features of a trade war is one country imposing high tariffs on another country's goods. With this move countries want to protect their industry against foreign competition.

2. **Status Actions:** States may take status actions against each other as part of a trade war, such as imposing import bans, export barriers, and trade quotas.

3. **Trade Agreements and Compromises:** During a trade war countries may renegotiate their trade agreements and compromises or impose new terms.

4. **Political and Economic Objectives:** States seek to achieve political or economic goals through trade wars, such as protecting local industries, enforcing foreign policies, or dominating global markets.

**IMPORTANCE OF TRADE WARS:**

1. **Economic Impact:** Trade wars cause instability in international trade relations and markets. Tariffs and other trade restrictions increase business costs and increase production costs, which have a negative impact on the global economy.

2. **Effect on consumer prices:** Higher tariffs increase the price of imported goods, creating a higher price crisis for consumers. This increases the cost of living and reduces the purchasing power of the common man.

3. **Economic Growth:** Global economic growth may slow as a result of trade war. Businessmen and investors may reduce investment due to volatility, which hinders economic development.

4. **Impact of concerned industries:** Certain industries or sectors are particularly affected. For example, agriculture, technology, and manufacturing industries can be directly affected as a result of a trade war.

**Examples of trade wars:**

1. **US-China Trade War:** The US-China trade war that started in 2018 has had a major impact on the global economy. The US imposed high tariffs on China and China retaliated against the US. This trade war has caused instability in the trade relations between the two countries and global markets.

2. **US-EU Trade Dispute:** Trade disputes also occur between the US and the EU, such as due to the imposition of steel and aluminum tariffs and other trade protectionist measures.

3. **Japan and South Korea:** Japan and South Korea have had trade disputes, particularly over tariffs and export restrictions on technology products and raw materials.

**Consequences of Trade War:**

1. **Trade Agreements:** Trade wars can lead to states moving towards new trade agreements and compromises. For example, the US and China renegotiated their trade agreement.

2. **International Relations:** Trade wars can increase tension and conflict in international relations. It affects international cooperation and relations.

3. **Economic Recovery:** After a trade war, economic recovery may require a number of steps, such as readjustment of trade policies and creation of new markets.

**Conclusion:**

Trade wars are a prime example of economic competition and conflict between states. It affects international trade relations and poses a major challenge to the global economy. They try to protect their economic interests by imposing trade restrictions and tariffs between states, but this creates instability in world markets and affects economic growth. Coping with trade wars requires cooperation, compromise, and international policy coordination.

6. **Nuclear Weapons** - Use of nuclear energy and its effects.

**Introduction:**

Nuclear Weapons (Nuclear Weapons) is a type of destructive weapon that produces a large amount of energy through nuclear reactions. The power of this weapon is so huge that it is capable of completely destroying a city or a large area at once. The impact of nuclear weapons is not only limited to the military, but also affects the environment, health and international relations.

**Key Features of Nuclear Weapons:**

1. **Differentiation of Types:**

   - **Fission Bomb (Fission Bomb):** This weapon produces energy using the nuclear fission process. For example, the bombs that destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

   - **Fusion Bomb (Fusion Bomb) or Hydrogen Bomb:** These weapons use the process of nuclear fusion (fusion) to generate a lot of energy. It is more destructive than fission bombs.

2. **Radiation:** Gamma radiation, X-rays, and neutron radiation produced by nuclear explosions spread over a large area directly affecting human health and the environment.

3. **Heat:** A nuclear explosion produces a huge amount of heat, which can instantly burn and scorch large areas.

4. **MILITARY AND STRATEGIC EFFECTS:** The presence of nuclear weapons creates international strategic stability and an attack by one country creates fear of nuclear retaliation against another country.

**Effects of Nuclear Weapons:**

1. **Human Impact:**

   - **Effect of fission bomb:** As seen in the example of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear explosions cause severe damage to the human body. It kills a large number of people and causes long-term health problems in many lives.

   - **Effects of Fusion Bombs:** Fusion bombs produce much more energy, resulting in larger blast radius and more severe effects on humans.

2. **Environmental Impact:**

   - **Radioactive Pollution:** Radioactive material released from nuclear explosions is released into the environment, contaminating soil, water and air. This pollution causes long-term environmental damage.

   - **Super-Nuclear Winter:** The explosion creates a lot of smoke and particles on Earth, which blocks sunlight and can create a long-term cold state.

3. **Financial Implications:**

   - **Huge Cost:** Nuclear weapons cost huge money to build and maintain. Governments spend a large portion of their defense budgets on this.

   - **Rehabilitation and Medical Costs:** Human and environmental rehabilitation and medical costs are huge after a nuclear explosion.

**International Policies and Treaties:**

1. Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): Established in 1968, this treaty aims to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons and ensure the peaceful use of nuclear energy.

2. **Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT):** Adopted in 1996, it bans all tests of nuclear weapons.

3. **START Agreement (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, START):** This agreement was formed to reduce the number of nuclear weapons between the United States and Russia.

**International Relations of Nuclear Weapons:**

1. **Global Security:** Nuclear weapons have created a new level of international security. Possession of nuclear power is instrumental in ensuring international strategic stability.

2. **Complexity of International Relations:** Possession of nuclear weapons creates balance of power and strategic competition in world politics. Proliferation of nuclear weapons creates new challenges.

3. **Economic impact:** The nuclear arms race affects national budgets, development and the international economy.

**Conclusion:**

Nuclear weapons are a powerful and destructive technology that poses serious challenges to global security and humanity. The use of these weapons and the resulting effects are an important chapter in the history of human civilization. Formulating effective policies and treaties for the control, disarmament and peaceful use of nuclear weapons is crucial for the international community. All nations must work together to counter the dangerous effects of nuclear weapons to ensure a safe and stable world.

7. **International Legal Framework** - International Law, Treaties and Statutes.

**Introduction:**

The world economy is a complex system consisting of the financial activities, trade relations, and economic trends of countries worldwide. It operates on the basis of global markets where the economic activities of different countries are interconnected. Factors in the global economy such as market momentum, economic growth, and recession affect economic stability and development in different regions of the world.

### **Global Market:**

**Global Market Definition:**

A global market is an economic field in which the markets, products, services, and investment activities of different countries are interconnected. It is influenced by international trade, international investment, and global economic policy.

**Global Market Components:**

1. **International Trade:** Import-export activities of goods and services between different countries. Trade relations in global markets depend on countries' economic performance and international trade policies.

2. **Global Currency Market:** Economic activity through international currency exchange and foreign exchange transactions. Currency values ​​and exchange rates affect global trade and investment.

3. **International Investment:** Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and global stock market transactions. It is a part of the flow of capital between different countries.

4. **World Economic Organization:** The International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO), and World Bank oversee global economic relations and policies.

### **Economic Growth:**

**Definition of Economic Growth:**

Economic growth is the increase in the overall productive capacity of a country's economy, usually measured by growth in GDP. It is an indicator of a country's general standard of living and economic development.

**Sources of Economic Growth:**

1. **Increase in Productivity:** Improvement in productivity through technological development, increase in employment, and development of new industries.

2. **Investment:** Increased investment in infrastructure, education, health, and other developmental projects.

3. **Increasing Trade:** Accelerating economic growth by expanding international trade and markets.

4. **Policies and Reforms:** Economic policies, reforms, and government initiatives that promote a business environment and investment.

**Impact of Economic Growth:**

1. **Improve the standard of living:** Economic growth usually leads to an increase in the standard of living, improvements in education and healthcare.

2. **Reduction in unemployment:** Economic growth increases employment opportunities and reduces unemployment.

3. **Business Opportunities:** Develops new business opportunities and initiatives.

### **Recession:**

**Definition of Recession:**

A recession is a sustained contraction of economic activity, typically characterized by a decline in GDP, an increase in unemployment, and a decline in economic activity. This usually occurs during an economic crisis or prolonged economic stagnation.

**Reason of Recession:**

1. **International Market Volatility:** Volatility in global markets, such as trade wars or economic crises.

2. **Economic Policy:** Wrong economic policy, such as excessive credit or tax policy, which can affect economic stability.

3. **Natural Disasters:** Natural disasters or epidemics can disrupt economic activities.

4. **Lack of Investment:** Lack of investment and infrastructural deficit can lead to recession.

**Effects of Recession:**

1. **Increased unemployment:** Unemployment increases during a recession because business activity declines and employment opportunities decrease.

2. **Decreased standard of living:** Due to economic recession the standard of living may decrease and common people may suffer financially.

3. **Commercial Losses:** Business losses and decline in production occur, which affects the overall economic stability.

**Conclusion:**

The global economy is a complex and interconnected system that is influenced by various factors such as global markets, economic growth, and recession. The growth and stability of global markets depends on international trade, investment, and economic policy. Economic growth is an indicator of the country's general development and increase in standard of living, but recession creates economic crisis and stagnation. It is important to ensure the development and stability of the world economy through international relations and economic policies.

8 . **Global Economy** - Global markets, economic growth and recession.

The global economy is a complex system that operates through the integrated elements of global market activity, economic growth, and recession. It is influenced by economic activity within the country, international trade, investment, and policies.

### **Global Market:**

**Definition:**

Global markets are active markets for the exchange of goods, services, and capital between countries around the world. It is influenced by international trade, currency exchange, and global economic relations.

**Ingredients:**

1. **International Trade:**

   - **Trade Balance:** The difference in the volume of imports and exports of goods and services between countries. Trade balance, surplus or deficit, affects global market stability.

   - **Trade Agreements:** Free trade agreements and trade policies between countries affect global market flows.

2. **Currency Exchange:**

   - **Currency Valuation:** Foreign currency exchange rate affects the commercial competitiveness and economic stability of the country.

   - **Currency Market:** Volatility in the global currency market affects the international economy.

3. **Investment:**

   - **Foreign Direct Investment (FDI):** Investments by international companies affect the domestic market economy.

   - **Portfolio Investments:** Changes in investments in international stock markets and debt markets affect the global economy.

4. **International Economic Organization:**

   - **World Bank (World Bank):** Assists in the economic development of developing countries.

   - **International Monetary Fund (IMF):** Helps maintain global monetary stability and safeguard the economic stability of member countries.

### **Economic Growth:**

**Definition:**

Economic growth is the increase in the overall productive capacity of a country's economy. It is usually measured by the growth of a country's GDP.

**Source:**

1. **Productivity Increase:**

   - **Development of technology:** Use of new technology and innovation increase productivity.

   - **Labor Market Skills:** Skills of workers are improved through education and training.

2. **Investment:**

   - **Infrastructure:** Increase economic activity by investing in transportation, power, and communication infrastructure.

   - **Industry and Entrepreneurship:** New industrial and entrepreneurial ventures accelerate economic growth.

3. **Trade and Global Relations:**

   - **Free Trade:** International trade agreements and trade facilitation increase economic growth.

   - **Access to Global Markets:** Access to new markets increases a country's export opportunities.

4. **Financial Policy:**

   - **Government Policy:** The government's economic policies, such as tax policy and government spending, affect economic growth.

**Effects:**

1. **Improving the standard of living:** Economic growth generally increases the standard of living.

2. **Reduction in unemployment:** Employment opportunities increase and unemployment decreases.

3. **Business Opportunities:** New business opportunities and ventures develop.

### **Recession:**

**Definition:**

A recession is a crisis in economic conditions in which economic activity declines drastically. It is usually characterized by a decline in GDP, high unemployment, and low productivity.

**Reason:**

1. **International Market Volatility:**

   - **Trade War:** Trade wars and international trade barriers can cause recession.

   - **World Economic Crisis:** Global economic crisis or currency instability can lead to recession.

2. **Economic Policy:**

   - **Excess Debt:** Excess government debt and poor economic policy decisions can create a recession.

   - **Economic Reforms:** Inadequate economic reforms can also lead to recession.

3. **Natural Disasters:**

   - **Disasters and Epidemics:** Natural disasters and epidemics disrupt economic activity and can cause recession.

4. **Lack of Investment:**

   - **Infrastructural Deficit:** Lack of infrastructure investment can hamper economic activity.

**Effects:**

1. **Increasing unemployment:** During a recession unemployment increases and employment decreases.

2. **Decreased standard of living:** Economic crisis generally reduces the standard of living.

3. **Business Loss:** Business activity slows down and production declines.

**Conclusion:**

The world economy is a comprehensive and interconnected system that is governed by elements of global markets, economic growth, and recession. Global market activity, sources of economic growth, and the causes and effects of recessions play an important role in the stability and development of the international economy. A healthy and stable economy needs to be ensured through global economic relations and policies.

9. **Geopolitics** - Political and economic influence based on territory.

**Introduction:**

Geopolitics is an existing political and strategic analysis that considers terrain, natural resources, and geographic location as key elements of political and economic influence. It analyzes the influence of land and local elements on the state's international relations, security, and strategic goals. Geopolitics, generally, relates the influence of states' geography and natural resources to their foreign policy and strategic decisions.

### **Key Elements of Geopolitics:**

1. **IMPORTANCE OF LAND:**

   - **Geographic Location:** A country's geographic location can be important for international relations and security. For example, a country's coastal location can increase its commercial and strategic importance.

   - **Borders:** Borders and border issues affect the country's security and relations with neighboring countries.

2. **Natural Resources:**

   - **Petroleum and Gas:** Oil and gas sources such as the Middle East are geographically important. Control over such resources can strengthen a country's international power and influence.

   - **Mineral Resources:** The presence of various mineral resources, such as gold, coal, and rare earth metals, can increase a country's economic power.

3. **Climate and Environment:**

   - **Climate:** Climate can affect agriculture and other economic activities, which in turn affects political and economic stability.

   - **Environmental Change:** Climate change and natural disasters bring new challenges to global geopolitics.

4. **Population and Populated Area:**

   - **Population Distribution:** Population density and distribution play an important role in political decision-making, such as transportation and infrastructure development in urban-dwelling areas.

### **Geopolitical Impact:**

1. **International Relations:**

   - **Regional Power:** Some countries can establish regional hegemony due to geopolitics. For example, Turkey's territory increases its political strategic importance in the Middle East.

   - **Geographically powerful countries:** Large and strategically important countries, such as the United States, Russia, and China, influence international politics.

2. **Safety and Tactics:**

   - **Military Strategy:** A country's terrain influences military strategy and planning. For example, defense force building and border security are important in hilly areas.

   - **Border Conflicts:** Due to geopolitics, border conflicts and disputes may occur, such as India-Pakistan border conflict.

3. **Financial Implications:**

   - **Trade Routes:** International trade routes and routes based on terrain have strategic importance. The Suez Canal plays an important role in international trade routes.

   - **Trade Relations:** Trade relations and agreements are formed based on natural resources and territory.

4. **Political Strategy:**

   - **Geopolitical Interest:** Countries' political strategy is determined by their territory and resources, which influence their behavior and policies on the international stage.

### **Some examples of geopolitics:**

1. **Middle East:**

   - **Abundance of Oil and Gas:** The Middle East's oil and gas reserves play an important role in international geopolitics. There is competition among world powers to dominate the region.

2. **Arctic Region:**

   - **Melting Snow:** Melting snow in the Arctic is creating new waterways and facilitating exploration of natural resources. This shift has brought new opportunities and challenges to international geopolitics.

3. **North Korea and South Korea:**

   - **Borders and Security:** The strategic location of the border between North and South Korea and the presence of nuclear weapons are geopolitically important.

4. **South China Sea:**

   - **TRADE ROUTES AND TERRITORY:** Disputes over ownership of territory in the South China Sea are ongoing and control over trade routes in the region is of significant geopolitical importance.

### **Conclusion:**

Geopolitics plays an important role in determining a country's international relations and economic strategy. Terrain, natural resources, climate, and population factors influence the course of international politics and economic relations. A country's geopolitical location serves as a key element in its international power, trade relations, and security strategies. Geopolitics is considered an essential part of world politics and it strongly influences the strategic decisions of states and international relations.

10. **Diplomatic Relations** - Diplomatic relations and cooperation between states.

**Introduction:**

Diplomatic relations are an important means of communication and cooperation between states. Through this, countries implement their international policies, develop political, economic, and cultural relations with each other. Diplomatic relations are effective not only bilaterally but also multilaterally. It is essential to ensure international peace, security, and stability.

### **Basic Elements of Diplomatic Relations:**

1. **Ambassadors and Diplomatic Missions:**

   - **Ambassadors:** Ambassadors represent one country, conduct diplomatic activities of other countries and help develop bilateral relations. Their role is to maintain political relations, provide advice, and protect the country's interests.

   - **Diplomatic Missions:** Ambassadors set up embassies and consulates to carry out their duties. Embassies are usually located in the capital and consulates in other important cities, which handle civil services and commercial relations.

2. **INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND AGREEMENTS:**

   - **Treaty:** A treaty between states is a written agreement made to accomplish a specific objective, such as a trade agreement, security agreement, or environmental protection agreement.

   - **Compromise:** In some cases, states enter into verbal or written agreements with each other that, although less formal than treaties, are important.

3. **Diplomatic Tactics and Negotiation Process:**

   - **Diplomatic Negotiations:** As part of diplomatic relations, states sometimes resolve various issues through negotiations. This can be through multiple meetings, conferences, or discussion sessions.

   - **Meetings and Conferences:** Various meetings and conferences are conducted at the international level where diplomats discuss issues and seek solutions.

4. **International Organizations and Platforms:**

   - **United Nations (UN):** The United Nations is an important platform for maintaining international peace and security. Its various bodies and committees cooperate among states to solve global problems.

   - **World Trade Organization (WTO):** WTO regulates and oversees international trade and ensures commercial cooperation between countries.

### **IMPORTANCE OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS:**

1. **Peace and Security:**

   - **Conflict Resolution:** Diplomatic relations are helpful in resolving international conflicts and disputes. Peace can be achieved through diplomatic negotiations and compromise between states.

   - **Security Cooperation:** States can combat terrorism, crime, and other security challenges through security information exchange and cooperation.

2. **Economic Development:**

   - **Trade and Investment:** International trade and investment increases through diplomatic relations. Economic growth of the country is accelerated through trade agreements and economic cooperation.

   - **Economic Aid:** International aid and development cooperation is implemented through diplomatic relations which are helpful to developing countries.

3. **Cultural and Material Relations:**

   - **Cultural Exchange:** Diplomatic relations provide opportunities for cultural exchange and understanding. It helps in promoting cultural events, educational programs and public relations within the country.

   - **Public Relations:** International public relations and media cooperation help to improve relations between states.

### **Challenges of Diplomatic Relations:**

1. **Different Policies and Interests:**

   - **Different Interests:** Differing policies and interests between countries can create challenges in diplomatic relations. Conflicting interests of different countries can create complications in settlement.

2. **Global Crisis and Pandemic:**

   - **Pandemics and crises:** Global crises, such as pandemics, can affect diplomatic relations between states. Maintaining diplomatic relations and managing cooperation during a crisis can be difficult.

3. **Internal Political Situation:**

   - **Political Unrest:** Internal political unrest in a country can affect diplomatic relations and hinder international cooperation.

### **Conclusion:**

Diplomatic relations are an essential element of international relations and cooperation between states. It plays an important role in maintaining peace and security, economic development, and cultural exchange. States communicate with each other and solve international problems through diplomatic relations. Although diplomatic relations have some challenges, these challenges can be overcome with proper diplomatic techniques and sincere cooperation.

11. **Human Rights** - International Standards and Human Rights Remedies.

**Introduction:**

Human rights are basic rights and freedoms that every human being deserves. It is an essential part of ensuring humanity, dignity, and legal protection. The concept of human rights is internationally recognized and implemented through various international treaties and institutions. Human rights ensure the support of people's fundamental freedoms and opportunities and aim to prevent all forms of discrimination, oppression, and inefficiency.

### **INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS OF HUMAN RIGHTS:**

1. **Global Human Rights Convention:**

   - Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR): This declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948 defines the basic principles and standards of human rights. It includes the right to liberty, security, education, and access to justice.

   - International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR): Adopted in 1966, this covenant recognizes economic, social, and cultural rights, such as education, health care, and cultural rights. Right to participate.

2. **Human Rights Commissions and Agencies:**

   - **UN Human Rights Council:** The UN Human Rights Council monitors and evaluates the human rights situation and takes measures against human rights violations.

   - **International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC):** Works to ensure humanitarian law and the protection of human rights during wartime.

3. **Regional Human Rights Treaties and Organizations:**

   - **European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR):** This convention adopted by the Council of Europe ensures the protection of human rights in European countries.

   - **African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights):** This agreement adopted by the African Union protects human rights and peoples' rights in Africa.

   - **American Convention on Human Rights (American Convention on Human Rights):** Agreement adopted for the protection of human rights among American states.

### **Main Elements of Human Rights:**

1. **Fundamental Freedom:**

   - **Personal Freedom:** Freedom of movement, expression, and religious belief.

   - **Safety and Security:** Physical and mental security, freedom from unwanted interference.

2. **Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights:**

   - **Education:** Right to basic education and higher education.

   - **Health Care:** Right to basic health care and appropriate treatment.

   - **Employment:** Decent employment and fair working environment.

3. **Civil and Political Rights:**

   - **Right to vote:** The right to participate in the electoral process and express political opinion.

   - **Legal protection:** Right to justice and legal protection.

### **Human Rights Remedies:**

1. **LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS:**

   - **Legal Proceedings:** Taking national and international legal action in case of human rights violations. The International Criminal Court (ICC) prosecutes serious violations of human rights.

   - **National Human Rights Commission:** National Human Rights Commissions are formed in various countries, which deal with human rights violations and receive public complaints.

2. **Social Movements and Awareness:**

   - **Campaigns and Campaigns:** Human rights organizations conduct campaigns and campaigns to raise awareness, which helps people take necessary steps to protect their rights.

   - **Global Movements:** Various international human rights movements work to ensure the protection of human rights worldwide.

3. **International Cooperation and Monitoring:**

   - **Pandemic and Crisis Situations:** The international community helps ensure the protection of human rights in epidemic, war, and crisis situations. For example, providing humanitarian aid during wartime.

4. **Economic Assistance and Development Cooperation:**

   - **Development Projects:** Various international organizations provide human rights development projects and economic assistance, which increase society's commitment to justice and equality.

### **Human Rights Challenges:**

1. **Disparity and Inefficiency:**

   - **Discrimination:** Racial, religious, gender-based discrimination hinders the protection of human rights. Implementation of the rights of marginalized groups and women remains problematic.

   - **Inefficiency:** Political instability and corruption can create barriers to human rights protection.

2. **Conflict and Violence:**

   - **War and armed conflict:** War and armed conflict can lead to serious violations of human rights, such as refugee crises and humanitarian crises.

   - **Human Rights Violations:** Human rights violations in conflict zones, such as torture and killings, are major obstacles to the realization of human rights.

3. **Technology and Privacy:**

   - **Information Privacy:** Protection and privacy of personal information has become a new challenge in the digital age. Online surveillance and cyber attacks are creating new areas of human rights violations.

### **Conclusion:**

Human rights are fundamental rights that every human being deserves and are internationally recognized. International standards, treaties, and organizations are working to ensure the protection and redress of human rights. Although there are various challenges in the implementation of human rights, these challenges can be met through international cooperation, legal systems, and social movements. Human rights are fundamental rights for all, and ensuring their protection is essential for world peace and development.

12. **Environment and Climate Change** - International environmental policy and impacts of climate change.

**Introduction:**

Environment and climate change have become an important part of the global crisis today. Environmental issues, such as climate change, overuse of natural resources, and loss of biodiversity, are greatly affecting human health, the economy, and the Earth's ecosystems. At the international level, various agreements, policies, and initiatives have been adopted to address the environment and climate change. This process aims to preserve the environment and reduce the impact of climate change.

### **International Environmental Policy:**

1. **Environmental Agreements and Initiatives:**

   - ** Paris Climate Agreement (Paris Agreement):** This agreement adopted in 2015 is an important international agreement to prevent climate change. Its goal is to keep global temperature rise below 2 degrees Celsius and take action against climate change.

   - **Kyoto Protocol (Kyoto Protocol):** This agreement adopted in 1997, through which the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions was set for developed countries. Although it was only binding on certain countries, it formed the basis of international climate policy.

2. **Environmental Protection Organizations and Platforms:**

   - **United Nations Environment Program (UNEP):** UNEP is a major international organization for environmental conservation and solving global environmental problems. It supports environmental conservation, research, and policy development.

   - **International Forestry Commission (International Forest Organization - IFO):** Provides international cooperation for forest conservation and forest management.

3. **Natural Resource Management:**

   - **Multilateral Global Protocols:** Various international agreements and protocols work to ensure sustainable management of natural resources, such as water, soil, and minerals.

   - **Conservation of Biodiversity:** International Convention on Biological Diversity (Convention on Biological Diversity - CBD) provides an important platform for conservation of biodiversity.

### **Effects of Climate Change:**

1. **Natural Effects:**

   - **Effects of temperature rise:** Global temperature rise is caused by greenhouse gases, which are changing the Earth's climate system. This is causing heat waves, melting ice in Greenland and Antarctica, and rising sea levels.

   - **Lightning and Natural Disasters:** Climate change is increasing the likelihood of more frequent lightning, cyclones, and natural disasters such as floods.

2. **Environmental Impact:**

   - **Loss of biodiversity due to climate change:** Changing climate and environmental conditions are posing threats to biodiversity, leading to the extinction of various species and damage to ecosystems.

   - **Mass Natural Disasters:** Climate change is increasing the nature and intensity of natural disasters, such as typhoons, cyclones, and droughts.

3. **Human Impact:**

   - **Health Issues:** Climate change is causing health issues such as heart disease due to heat, water borne diseases due to flooding, and new diseases emerging in the changing environment.

   - **Economic Impacts:** Climate change is affecting agriculture, fisheries, and water resources management, affecting food security and economic stability.

### **International Remedies and Actions:**

1. **Reduction in Carbon Emissions:**

   - **Fixed Targets:** Various international agreements and projects have set targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It is conducive to the use of renewable energy and development of energy efficiency.

2. **Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):**

   - **Environmental Stability:** The SDGs, particularly Goal 13 (Action against Climate Change), call for coordinated action to address the impacts of climate change and protect the environment.

3. **International Cooperation:**

   - **Global Initiatives:** Various international initiatives, such as the "Green Climate Fund" and the "Global Environment Facility" provide assistance to developing countries to combat climate change.

4. **Local and National Actions:**

   - **Local initiatives:** Local governments and organizations undertake local plans and initiatives to combat climate change, such as tree planting programs and promotion of energy efficiency.

   - **National Policy:** Countries formulate their national environmental policies and plans, which help to address climate change and environmental issues.

### **Challenges and Way Forward:**

1. **Financial and Technical Barriers:**

   - **Economic constraints:** Coping with climate change can be economically challenging for developing countries. Development countries need support and technology transfer.

2. **Lack of Political Will:**

   - **Political Barriers:** Lack of political will in some countries may hinder the implementation of climate change and environmental policies.

3. **Lack of public awareness:**

   - **Public awareness:** There is a need to increase public awareness about environment and climate change. Social outreach and education programs are instrumental in ensuring this.

### **Conclusion:**

Environment and climate change is a serious challenge for all mankind. These issues are being tackled through international environmental policies, agreements and initiatives. The effects of climate change are having a profound impact on the global environment, human health, and economy. These challenges can be met through international cooperation, the Sustainable Development Goals, and local action. For the future, it is necessary to take more effective and coordinated actions to ensure the protection of the environment and reduce the harmful effects of climate change.

13. **Terrorism** - International Terrorism and Countermeasures.

**Introduction:**

Terrorism is a global problem that threatens international security, peace, and human rights. It is usually driven by political objectives or religious ideals and tries to implement the objectives through violence against common people. Various strategies and initiatives have been adopted by the international community and domestic security agencies to counter terrorism.

### **International Terrorism:**

1. **Definition of Terrorism:**

   - **Terrorism:** Violence or threats against the general public to achieve a specific objective, which aims to create terror in the general population. It challenges state security and international stability.

2. **Types of Terrorism:**

   - **Religious Terrorism:** Terrorism based on religious ideals or beliefs. For example, Al-Qaeda and ISIS (ISIS).

   - **Political Terrorism:** Violence for a political cause or ideology. For example, some rebel groups.

   - **Nationalist Terrorism:** Violence for the freedom of a particular nation or people. For example, BasqueETA (Spain).

3. **Effect of International Terrorism:**

   - **Humanitarian impact:** Terrorism causes many innocent lives, and creates insecurity.

   - **Economic impact:** Terrorism poses a threat to economic stability, harming the business and tourism sectors.

   - **Political Impact:** Creates pressure to change domestic and international policies of the state.

### **Counter Terrorism Strategy:**

1. **International Cooperation:**

   - **UN Counter-Terrorism Initiatives:** The UN has adopted various treaties and protocols to ensure global cooperation against terrorism, such as the UN Convention against Terrorism.

   - **Interpol and other international organizations:** The international police organization Interpol ensures global police cooperation and information sharing against terrorism.

2. **LEGAL AND SAFETY MEASURES:**

   - **Anti-Terrorism Laws:** Various countries have enacted strong anti-terrorism laws, which are helpful in apprehending and prosecuting terrorists.

   - **Border Security:** The flow of terrorist activities is prevented by improving border control and surveillance systems.

3. **Psychological and Social Programme:**

   - **Counter Terrorism Training:** Various countries conduct training and education programs against terrorist attitudes and ideologies.

   - **Development Initiatives:** Socio-economic development, especially reducing poverty and increasing access to education, is helpful in reducing the fertile ground for terrorism.

4. **Technology and Cyber ​​Security:**

   - **Cyber ​​Security:** Terrorist groups can campaign online, so it is important to strengthen cyber security systems. Terrorist activities can be detected through cyber surveillance and data analysis technology.

   - **Information Sharing:** International cyber security conferences and cooperation are helpful in combating terrorist activities.

5. **Counter Terrorism Cooperation:**

   - **Rehabilitation and Rehabilitation Programmes:** Various programs are conducted to rehabilitate and re-enter the society of members of terrorist groups.

   - **Stability Mission:** Peacekeeping missions and humanitarian assistance are provided to maintain stability against terrorist activities.

### **Challenges and Way Forward:**

1. **Emergence of Various Terrorist Groups:**

   - **New Terrorist Groups:** New and emerging terrorist groups are gaining influence in various regions, complicating international counter-terrorism efforts.

2. **Political and Social Reactions:**

   - **Political response:** Political instability in some countries may hinder the counter-terrorism process.

   - **Societal response:** Excessive security measures to counter terrorism can affect people's fundamental rights and freedoms.

3. **Use of Technology:**

   - **Digital Tools:** Terrorist groups can use digital tools and social media to carry out terrorist activities, which pose challenges for monitoring and control.

### **Conclusion:**

Terrorism is a serious challenge to international security. International cooperation, strong legal systems, psychological and social initiatives, and the use of technology play an important role in countering terrorism. The proliferation of terrorist activities and the emergence of new groups have complicated counterterrorism efforts. Countering terrorism requires an integrated and multifaceted strategy, which will ensure proactiveness and cooperation at the international and local levels.

14. **Refugee Crisis** - Humanitarian and Political Implications and Remedies.

**Introduction:**

The refugee crisis is a global challenge that creates a bridge between humanitarian crises and political tensions. Refugees typically flee their countries due to war, conflict, human rights abuses, environmental disasters, and political unrest. Due to this crisis various humanitarian, economic and political problems have arisen at the domestic and international level of the country.

### **Causes of the refugee crisis:**

1. **Conflict and War:**

   - **Armed Conflict:** Wars and armed conflicts, such as the Syrian civil war and the protracted conflict in Afghanistan, endanger people's lives and force them to flee their homes for safety.

   - **Ethnic and religious conflict:** In some countries, ethnic and religious conflict is a major cause of refugee crises, such as the Rohingya crisis in Myanmar.

2. **Political Repression and Human Rights Violations:**

   - **Persecution:** Political repression, lack of freedom of expression, and violations of fundamental rights put people's lives at risk and increase their chances of becoming refugees.

   - **Administrative Repression:** Rulers of many countries force people to flee their country due to administrative repression and political vendetta.

3. **Environmental Disaster:**

   - **Climate Change:** Climate change causes natural disasters, such as droughts and floods, endangering people's livelihoods and creating refugee crises.

   - **Natural Disasters:** Earthquakes, tsunamis, and other natural disasters are also a major factor in increasing the number of refugees.

### **Human Impact:**

1. **Health and Safety:**

   - **Health problems:** Refugees often suffer from poor health care, lack of clean water, and malnutrition. Health problems in refugee camps are often severe.

   - **Lack of security:** Refugee camps are often insecure, with incidents of sexual violence and other crimes.

2. **Education and Social Services:**

   - **Lack of education:** Refugee children often have limited access to education, which hinders their future development.

   - **Social services:** The refugee crisis generally puts pressure on social services and infrastructure, which can also create problems for local populations.

3. **Humanitarian Assistance:**

   - **International aid:** International organizations, such as the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR), provide humanitarian aid, but aid shortages and distribution problems often occur.

### **Political Implications:**

1. **Internal Political Tensions:**

   - **Popular response:** In some countries, refugee flows cause political tension and alienation among local populations. This increases conflict and tension between political parties.

   - **Political decisions:** The refugee crisis affects domestic political decisions in countries, such as changes in immigration policies and security systems.

2. **International Relations:**

   - **International cooperation:** The refugee crisis increases the need for international cooperation. Countries and international organizations work together to tackle the refugee crisis.

   - **Diplomatic Challenges:** The refugee crisis poses challenges to international relations in some areas, such as bitterness and political disputes between certain countries.

### **Solving the refugee crisis:**

1. **Humanitarian Assistance and Services:**

   - **International Aid:** International organizations provide food, healthcare, and shelter assistance to combat the refugee crisis. For example, UNHCR and the International Red Cross.

   - **Local Support:** Local organizations and volunteers work to provide humanitarian aid and compassion within refugee communities.

2. **Legal and Policy Changes:**

   - **Immigration Policy:** Many countries change their immigration policies to increase protection and support for refugees.

   - **Legal protection:** International treaties and national laws help ensure the protection of refugees, such as the 1951 Refugee Convention.

3. **Social and Economic Development:**

   - **Development projects:** Development projects, such as education and skill development programs, can help refugees self-reliance and social integration.

   - **Institutional support:** Local governments and NGOs provide social services and economic support to refugees.

4. **International Cooperation:**

   - **Global efforts:** International community cooperation is essential to combat the refugee crisis. Various countries and organizations are collectively seeking diplomatic efforts, assistance and solutions.

   - **Global Policy Coordination:** International policies and programs work in concert to ensure a long-term solution to the refugee crisis.

### **Challenges and Way Forward:**

1. **Long-Term Solution:**

   - **Durable solutions:** The refugee crisis requires a long-term solution, which may include eliminating the sources of conflict, developmental measures and political solutions.

2. **Political Will and Resources:**

   - **Political Will:** Political will and availability of resources are critical to tackling the refugee crisis. Coordination and cooperation between different countries is required.

3. **Technology and Innovation:**

   - **Use of technology:** Technology and innovation can be helpful in tackling the refugee crisis, such as digital documents and mobile applications to improve refugee services.

### **Conclusion:**

The refugee crisis is a profound humanitarian and political problem that requires the concerted efforts of the international community and local governments. The refugee crisis can be addressed through humanitarian assistance, legal protection, social and economic development, and international cooperation. In the future, more effective steps need to be taken to address the root causes of the refugee crisis, improve protection systems, and strengthen international cooperation.

15. **Oil and Gas** - Energy Reserves and Geopolitical Strategy.

**Introduction:**

Oil and gas are an important part of the world's energy needs and profoundly affect global geopolitics, the economy, and the environment. Oil and gas reserves are not only important in meeting the country's energy needs, but also have a huge impact on international relations, geopolitical strategy and the global economy. 

### **Geopolitical Importance of Oil and Gas:**

1. **Reservoir of Power:**

   - **Oil Reserves:** Oil is the world's most important energy source, through which the global economy is driven. The Middle East, particularly Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Iran, is the world's largest oil producing region.

   - **Gas Reserves:** Natural gas is also an important energy source. Russia, Qatar, and the United States are the world's major natural gas suppliers.

2. **Geopolitical Strategy:**

   - **Energy Security:** Possession and control of oil and gas is an important part of geopolitical strategy. Countries try to establish strategic control over petroleum resources to ensure energy security.

   - **Energy Geopolitics:** Oil and gas policies have a profound impact on international relations. Energy supply routes, prices, and availability play a key role in geopolitical strategy.

### **Oil and Gas Production and Supply:**

1. **Manufacturing Center:**

   - **Middle East:** Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates are the world's major oil producers. The region's oil production is an important part of global oil demand.

   - **Russia and the Caspian region:** Russia and countries in the Caspian region, such as Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, provide large quantities of natural gas.

2. **Energy Route and Transport:**

   - **Pipelines and Tankers:** Pipelines and tankers are used to transport oil and gas. Important pipeline routes, such as the Shenghui-Pipeline and the Turkmenistan-China Pipeline, affect the geopolitics of energy.

   - **Shipping:** Large quantities of oil and gas are transported by tankers by sea. Suez Canal and Strait of Malacca are important transport routes.

### **Geopolitical Strategy and Competition:**

1. **Capture and Control of Power:**

   - **Regulation of energy markets:** Regulation of oil and gas prices and supply has a strong impact on global markets. Big oil companies and producing countries play an effective role in this regulation.

   - **Resource possession:** The possession and control of energy resources is a major issue of international conflict and diplomatic negotiations.

2. **Geopolitical Conflict:**

   - **Conflicts and territorial disputes:** Geopolitical conflicts and disputes between countries over oil and gas reserves are often seen. For example, the Middle East conflict and the Russia-Ukraine conflict have affected the geopolitics of energy.

   - **Economic and Strategic Pressure:** Countries exert economic and strategic pressure against each other to seize or control energy reserves.

### **Geopolitical Strategy of Oil and Gas:**

1. **Rearrangement and Alternative Energy:**

   - **Future Energy Strategy:** Countries are encouraged to reduce energy dependence and invest in alternative energy sources. Renewable energies such as solar power, wind power, and hydropower are part of the future energy strategy.

   - **Future Projects:** Big oil companies invest in new technologies and energy projects, which may affect future energy markets.

2. **Power Diplomacy:**

   - **International Agreements:** International agreements and cooperation play an important role in ensuring energy security. For example, OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) and IEA (International Energy Agency) influence energy markets and policies.

   - **Energy Policy:** A country's energy policy affects international relations and geopolitics. Security of energy supply, price stability, and global energy policy are part of diplomatic relations between countries.

### **Environmental Impact and Future Outlook:**

1. **Environmental Impact:**

   - **Pollution and climate change:** The use of oil and gas causes environmental problems, such as greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. The production and use of energy has a severe impact on the environment.

   - **Global Initiatives:** International initiatives to combat climate change, such as the Paris Agreement, are instrumental in driving changes in energy use.

2. **Future Outlook:**

   - **Growth of renewable energy:** Future developments in renewable energy sources and technologies may change the geopolitics and economics of energy. Focus is on reducing energy dependence and using environmentally friendly energy.

   - **Energy Security:** Energy security and geopolitics need to innovate new strategies and solutions. Domestic and international demand and regulation of energy may change.

### **Conclusion:**

The geopolitics and strategies of oil and gas profoundly affect the global economy and international relations. There is geopolitical competition between countries over the control of energy reserves and supplies, which can affect various international crises and diplomatic negotiations. Future developments in renewable energy and technology will help change the geopolitics of energy. International cooperation and new strategies are needed to ensure the right balance between energy security and environmentally friendly use.

16. **NATIONAL SECURITY** - Security assurance and defense strategy of the state.

**Introduction:**

National security is a concerted effort to protect a state's sovereignty, security, and interests. It not only provides protection against external threats, but is also important for internal stability and social well-being. National security policies and strategies play an instrumental role in improving the security situation of the state.

### **Basic Elements of National Security:**

1. **Sovereignty and Protection:**

   - **International Security:** Security and diplomatic relations at the international level are important to protect the sovereignty of states. Protection of international borders, border security, and countering foreign threats are part of state sovereignty.

   - **Local Security:** The role of law enforcement and intelligence agencies is essential to ensure internal peace and stability.

2. **Combating External Threats:**

   - **Military Threats:** Building strong military forces and using modern technology to counter external military threats such as wars and invasions.

   - **Terrorism:** Counter-terrorism strategies and security measures are needed to counter international and local terrorist threats.

3. **INTERNAL SECURITY:**

   - **Crime and Law and Order:** Effectiveness of local law enforcement agencies and judiciary is important to deal with internal crime and law and order problems.

   - **Riots and Rebellions:** Government strategy and maintaining stability is essential to deal with social riots, rebellions and unrest.

### **National Security Strategy:**

1. **Military Strategy:**

   - **Military Power:** External threats are countered by strengthening the military. Modern warfare technology, training, and defense systems are part of military strategy.

   - **Strategic Capability:** Strategic planning, war preparation and military strategy help ensure national security.

2. **Intelligence and Security:**

   - **Intelligence Collection:** Security threats are identified through accurate data collection and analysis. Intelligence agencies are vigilant against terrorist activities, espionage and other threats.

   - **Cyber ​​Security:** Protecting digital information and preventing cyber attacks requires strong cyber security strategies.

3. **Law and Policy:**

   - **Security Legislation:** Legislation and implementation are important in preserving national security. Security laws ensure effective measures to combat crime and terrorism.

   - **Security Policy:** The security policy and strategy of the government plays an instrumental role in achieving national security objectives.

4. **Social and Economic Factors:**

   - **Economic Stability:** Economic stability is an important part of national security. Economic crises, poverty, and social inequality can pose security threats.

   - **Social Policy:** Social policy and developmental projects are helpful in improving the standard of living of the people and reducing social unrest.

### **National Security Challenges:**

1. **NEW SECURITY THREATS:**

   - **Cyber ​​Threats:** Security of digital information and cyber attacks are major challenges of today. Cyber ​​security measures need to be improved.

   - **Climate Change:** Climate change can cause environmental disasters and humanitarian crises, which affect security.

2. **Internal instability:**

   - **Social Unrest:** Social, political, and economic unrest is a threat to national security. Effective strategies are needed to deal with popular discontent and rebellion.

   - **Militism and Violence:** Religious and political militancy and violence are challenges to internal security.

3. **International Cooperation:**

   - **Geopolitical conflicts:** International geopolitical conflicts and conflicts can affect national security. International cooperation and diplomacy can be helpful in solving the crisis.

   - **International Terrorism:** Global cooperation is essential in combating international terrorism and crime.

### **Future vision of national security:**

1. **Renewable Energy and Technology:**

   - **Energy Security:** Renewable energy sources and technologies will shape the future vision of national security. Reducing energy dependence and use of environment-friendly technologies will help ensure safety.

   - **Technology Developments:** New technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Big Data can change security strategies.

2. **Global Security Initiatives:**

   - **International Coordination:** International coordination and cooperation will be enhanced to ensure national security. International security treaties and agreements can be helpful for security.

   - **HUMAN SECURITY:** Focusing on human security, such as health, education, and social services, will be considered part of national security.

### **Conclusion:**

National security is a multi-pronged and coordinated action to protect the sovereignty and security of the state. It relies on strong military, intelligence, and legal strategies to counter external and internal threats, as well as social and economic development and international cooperation. In the future, new technologies, climate change, and changes in international relations may affect national security strategies. An effective, integrated and timely strategy needs to be adopted to ensure national security.

17. **Military Power** - Use of troops and weapons and its international implications.

**Introduction:**

Military power plays an important role in a state's security, international balance of power, and strategic goals in geopolitics. It is a major means of countering external threats and building international relations through military and weaponry. Military power not only ensures the defense of a state, but also extends international influence.

### **Basic Elements of Military Power:**

1. **Army:**

   - **Army in the field:** The main component of the military is the army, which is prepared for land warfare. It is capable of protecting a state's ground and resisting attack.

   - **Navy:** The Navy is responsible for maritime security, maritime border protection and naval warfare. It plays an important role in maritime trade and protection of marine resources.

   - **Air Force:** The Air Force ensures airspace security and deterrence against attack. It has the capability to attack land and sea targets from the air.

2. **Weapons:**

   - **Urban Arms:** Provides important weaponry for military forces such as tanks, self-propelled artillery, and infantry weapons.

   - **Aircraft:** Fighter jets, bombers, and transport aircraft used in military operations and airspace defense.

   - **Navy:** Battleships, submarines, and corvettes are part of the Navy and essential to maritime power.

   - **Nuclear Weapons:** Nuclear weapons are a powerful element of military power, possessing massive destructive power.

3. **Space and Cyber ​​Capability:**

   - **Space Force:** Space forces use satellites and other space technologies for security and communications in orbit.

   - **Cyber ​​Capability:** Cyber ​​attack and deterrence is a new dimension in military strategy. Cyber ​​power is part of information gathering, military operations and cyber security.

### **International Impact of Military Power:**

1. **Geopolitical Impact:**

   - **Balance of Power:** The use of military force and distribution of weapons can alter the international balance of power. A strong military is instrumental in strengthening the country's geopolitical position.

   - **Climate Response:** The local and global impact of military power is analyzed through climate change responses and military conflict.

2. **International Relations and Diplomacy:**

   - **Diplomatic Relations:** The existence of military power plays a role in building diplomatic relations and resolving disputes. Greater military power can be a powerful strategy in international diplomacy.

   - **Mediation:** The use of military force can play a mediating role in cases of international conflict or tension. Stronger military power usually enjoys greater diplomatic leverage.

3. **Peace and Security:**

   - **Peacekeepers:** Military force can be used to preserve peace. International peacekeeping missions, such as peacekeeping forces, help maintain global peace and security.

   - **International Cooperation:** Cooperation and coordination between the military forces of different countries enhances international security. Joint military training and exercises are helpful in improving international relations.

### **Strategy and Policy of Military Power:**

1. **Basic Strategy:**

   - **Offensive Tactics:** Military forces can use offensive tactics to destroy enemy forces or capture territory. 

   - **Defensive Strategy:** Defensive strategy ensures border protection and resistance against attack.

2. **Safety Techniques:**

   - **Nuclear Strategy:** Nuclear weapon strategy plays an important role in military power. The Nuclear Disarmament and Control Treaty regulates the use of these weapons.

   - **Cyber ​​Strategy:** Cyber ​​security and countering cyber attacks are modern part of military strategy.

3. **Inclusion and Training:**

   - **Warrior Training:** Training and education are essential in developing the skills of the military. Trained in modern warfare techniques and tactics.

   - **Preparation for War:** The military conducts regular exercises and training as part of preparation for war.

### **Challenges of Military Power:**

1. **Military Expenditure:**

   - **Increase in Expenditure:** Increase in military expenditure can put pressure on the country's economy. A large portion of the military budget needs to be allocated to governance and social projects.

   - **Economic crisis:** Economic crisis can affect military spending and defense capabilities.

2. **International Arms Race:**

   - **Arms Race:** Arms race can increase tensions at international level. A large-scale arms race can threaten world peace and security.

3. **Intelligence and Technology:**

   - **Intelligence Challenge:** Lack of accurate data collection and intelligence analysis can affect military strategy and operations. 

   - **Technology Change:** The invention of new technology and weapons can lead to changes in military strategy, which can change the capabilities of military forces.

### **Future Outlook:**

1. **Use of New Technologies:**

   - **Artificial Intelligence (AI):** AI and autonomous systems are adding new dimensions to military power. Autonomous drones and other technologies will impact war tactics.

   - **Space Force:** The increase in space power and space technology will provide new aspects to military strategy.

2. **International Military Cooperation:**

   - **Alliances and Missions:** International military cooperation and peacekeeping missions will help ensure international security. 

   - **Development of relations:** Development of relations between the military forces of different countries will help in establishing international peace and security.

### **Conclusion:**

Military power is an important part of a state's security, international influence and geopolitical strategy. Arms, weapons, and modern technology are the basic elements of military power. Military power influences international relations and geopolitics, helping to ensure peace and security. In the future, new technologies, international cooperation, and military strategies may change the impact and effectiveness of military power. Effective use of military power and sound strategy are essential to ensure national and international security.

18. **Digital Diplomacy** - Diplomatic relations through social media and technology.

**Introduction:**

Digital diplomacy is a concept that includes the use of technology and social media as part of the process of diplomatic relations and international communication. Digital diplomacy not only helps improve relations between states, but also creates more effective and operational diplomatic strategies at the domestic and global levels of states. Social media, blogs, and digital platforms have brought new opportunities and challenges to diplomacy.

### **Basic Elements of Digital Diplomacy:**

1. **Social Media:**

   - **Dissemination of Information:** Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn build relationships with the public by quickly disseminating diplomatic messages and information.

   - **Engagement and Feedback:** State representatives can use social media to communicate directly with the opinions, questions, and concerns of the general public.

2. **Digital Platform:**

   - **Online Diplomacy:** Digital diplomacy platforms such as government websites, government blogs, and specialized diplomatic channels provide updates on diplomatic information and policies.

   - **E-Diplomacy:** Conducting international relations and negotiations through online meetings, video conferencing and virtual summits.

3. **Data and Analysis:**

   - **Data Collection:** Digital diplomacy helps improve diplomatic strategy through data collection and analysis. Social media trends and data analysis are helpful in determining the diplomatic stance of states.

   - **Big Data:** The collection and analysis of large amounts of data provides important insights for diplomatic decision-making.

### **Benefits of Digital Diplomacy:**

1. **Quick Contact:**

   - **Instant Messaging:** Messages can be delivered instantaneously through social media and digital platforms, ensuring quick response in diplomatic activities.

   - **Global Reach:** Digital diplomacy allows states to establish direct communication with different regions of the world.

2. **Increase Public Relations:**

   - **Public Participation:** Digital platforms provide an opportunity to interact directly with the public and listen to their concerns and views.

   - **Cultural Exchange:** Digital diplomacy is helpful in promoting cultural exchange and international relations.

3. **Economic Benefits:**

   - **Low Cost Promotion:** Digital diplomacy offers low cost promotion opportunities for promotion and relationship building.

   - **Trade and Investment:** Digital diplomacy is instrumental in improving international trade and investment relations.

### **Challenges of Digital Diplomacy:**

1. **Information Security:**

   - **Cyber ​​Attacks:** Exchanging information on digital platforms increases the risk of cyber attacks. Ensuring the security of diplomatic information is a major challenge.

   - **Confidentiality:** Confidentiality is required to keep personal information and diplomatic messages safe.

2. **False Information and Fake News:**

   - **False information:** False information and rumors can spread quickly on social media and other digital platforms, affecting diplomatic relations.

   - **Fraud:** Fraud and abuse is a challenge through digital diplomacy.

3. **Cultural and Linguistic Differences:**

   - **Linguistic Barriers:** The use of different languages ​​and cultural differences can create obstacles in the correct understanding of diplomatic messages.

   - **Cultural sensitivity:** Sensitivity to different cultures and contexts can affect the effectiveness of digital diplomacy.

### **Digital Diplomacy Strategies:**

1. **Strategic Communication:**

   - **Practical Strategies:** Develop strategic strategies to ensure clear and effective communication of diplomatic messages and policies.

   - **Analysis and Evaluation:** Analyze the effectiveness of the digital strategy and evaluate the necessary changes.

2. **Development in Technology:**

   - **Innovation:** Enhancing diplomatic activities using new technologies and digital tools.

   - **Training:** Providing training on digital strategies and technology usage for diplomats.

3. **International Cooperation:**

   - **Trusted Networks:** Participation in global problem solving by improving digital networks and cooperation at the international level.

   - **Use of online platforms:** Expansion of use of online platforms for international diplomatic negotiations.

### **Future Vision of Digital Diplomacy:**

1. **Technological Advances:**

   - **Artificial Intelligence (AI):** AI and machine learning will add new dimensions to diplomatic analysis and communication.

   - **Blockchain Technology:** Blockchain technology can help improve security and transparency.

2. **International Context:**

   - **Global Digital Policy:** International policies and norms will be developed for digital diplomacy and security.

   - **International coordination:** Digital diplomatic strategies of different countries will coordinate and international cooperation will increase.

3. **Social Impact:**

   - **Public Participation:** Digital diplomacy will increase the importance of public participation and opinion.

   - **Changing International Relations:** Digital diplomacy will help change the dynamics of international relations and diplomatic processes.

### **Conclusion:**

Digital diplomacy has made the use of technology and social media an important part of diplomatic relations and international communication. It is fast, effective and helpful in improving diplomatic relations at the global level. If the benefits and challenges of digital diplomacy are properly managed, it can be a powerful element in international relations and diplomatic strategy. In the future, digital diplomacy will face new opportunities and challenges related to new technologies, international policies and societal implications.

19. **Pacific Politics** - Geopolitics of the Asia-Pacific region.

**Introduction:**

Pacific Politics analyzes the geopolitical and strategic situation in the Asia-Pacific region. The region is of great importance to the world economy and international relations, as it is the world's largest oceanic area and a meeting point for many countries. The geopolitics of the region is linked to strong economic, military, and diplomatic ties, which affect the course of international relations and global security.

### **Major Geopolitical Players:**

1. **China:**

   - **Emerging Power:** China is increasing its military and economic power as a major geopolitical power. China is expanding regional and global influence through the 'Belt and Road' initiative.

   - **South China Sea:** China claims sovereignty over the South China Sea, which is disputed with other countries in the region and is at risk under international maritime law.

2. **United States:**

   - **Military Presence:** The United States maintains a strong military presence in the Pacific region, particularly in Japan, South Korea, and Guam.

   - **Indo-Pacific Strategy:** The United States is implementing the Indo-Pacific Strategy, which is committed to countering China's influence and free trade policies.

3. **Japan:**

   - **Economic Power:** Japan is a major power in the world economy and important to political and economic stability in the region.

   - **Military Power:** Although Japan's military power is limited by the constitution, it plays an important role in security cooperation and international military participation.

4. **South Korea:**

   - **Developing Economy:** South Korea is strong in technology and economy, and active in international diplomacy in relations with North Korea.

   - **Economic and Military Cooperation:** South Korea maintains military and economic cooperation with the United States.

5. **India:**

   - **Growth and Strategy:** India is expanding its influence in the Pacific region, especially through economic development and military partnerships.

   - **Pacific Strategy:** India is committed to stability and security in the Indo-Pacific region.

### **Major Geopolitical Issues:**

1. **South China Sea Dispute:**

   - **China's Claims:** China claims authority over almost the entire South China Sea, which is against international maritime law and claims by neighboring countries.

   - **International Response:** The United States and other Western countries have been active in this debate to ensure unimpeded maritime traffic.

2. **North Korea's Nuclear Program:**

   - **Nuclear Threat:** North Korea has caused international concern through its nuclear program, affecting security and diplomatic relations in the region.

   - **International Initiatives:** Negotiated with international organizations and countries to control North Korea's nuclear program and implemented sanctions.

3. **Trade War and Economic Relations:**

   - **US-China Trade War:** Trade tensions between the US and China have impacted the international economy and destabilized trade relations in the Pacific region.

   - **Trade Agreements:** Regional Com Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) and other trade agreements are playing a role in determining the economic relations of the region.

### **International Cooperation and Diplomacy:**

1. **Regional Alliances and Organizations:**

   - **ASEAN (ASEAN):** The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, ASEAN, is a major platform for regional cooperation and stability in the Pacific region.

   - **Australia-India-Japan Triangle:** This triangular cooperation supports each other in terms of economic and security.

2. **Global Organizations and Agreements:**

   - **United Nations:** The United Nations serves as an important platform for cooperation on various international issues.

   - **International Laws and Treaties:** Laws of the sea, Nuclear Arms Control Treaty and other international agreements impact the geopolitical environment of the region.

### **Future Trends:**

1. **Growing China's Influence:**

   - **Economic and Military Expansion:** China's economic and military expansion will increase its influence at the international level and may change the geopolitical balance of the region.

   - **Development Projects:** China will continue to develop infrastructure and expand regional influence through its 'Belt and Road' initiative.

2. **US STRATEGY:**

   - **Indo-Pacific Strategy:** The Indo-Pacific strategy of the United States can be effective in increasing security and economic influence in the region.

   - **Relationships with Allies:** The United States will work to strengthen relationships with its allies and counter China's influence.

3. **Regional Security and Cooperation:**

   - **Regional Stability:** Different countries and alliances will increase cooperation to ensure regional stability and security.

   - **Trade and Economic Relations:** New trade agreements and economic cooperation will help improve the region's economic relations.

### **Conclusion:**

Pacific politics is important for the geopolitical and economic situation around the world. China, the United States, Japan, South Korea, and India are the major geopolitical players in the region and the relationship between them affects international stability and security. South China Sea disputes, North Korea's nuclear program, and trade wars are major geopolitical issues in the region. The role of international cooperation, regional alliances, and global organizations affects the geopolitical environment of the Pacific region, and future trends will determine the trajectory of the region's dominant geopolitics.

20. **Brexit** - Britain's departure from the European Union and its implications.

**Introduction:**

The word Brexit is a combination of the words "Britain" and "Exit", which refers to the process of Britain leaving the European Union (EU). Britain voted to leave the EU in a referendum held on 23 June 2016, marking a significant political and economic change. The process of Brexit and its implications have been analyzed from various perspectives, including political, economic, social, and global perspectives.

### **Background on Brexit:**

1. **Reasons for Brexit:**

   - **Sovereignty:** Many British citizens and political parties were opposed to EU rights, especially regarding border controls and legal controls.

   - **Economic decisions:** By retaining EU membership the UK was perceived to be losing a greater degree of control in many areas, which affected economic policy and commercial decisions.

   - **Immigration:** As part of the European Union's single market, there was the issue of immigration from other EU countries independently, which caused concern among British citizens.

2. **Referendum and Results:**

   - **2016 Referendum:** In the British referendum on June 23, 2016, 52% of voters voted for Brexit and 48% voted to retain membership of the European Union.

   - **Political Decisions:** The result of the referendum set the context for subsequent political decisions and legislative changes by the British government.

### **Process of Brexit:**

1. **LEGAL PROCEDURE:**

   - **Official announcement:** On March 29, 2017, Britain officially began the process of leaving the EU.

   - **Transition Period:** Britain exits the European Union on 31 December 2020, but a new trade deal with the EU is in place during the transition period until 31 December 2021.

2. **Trade Agreements:**

   - **Agreement with the European Union:** After Brexit, Britain signed a trade agreement with the EU, facilitating multilateral trade relations and customs controls.

   - **WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION:** Britain began conducting international trade under World Trade Organization (WTO) rules.

### **Effects of Brexit:**

1. **Economic Impact:**

   - **Trade relations:** After Brexit, Britain's trade relations with the European Union changed, creating trade barriers in some areas.

   - **Economic growth:** As a result of Brexit, economic growth in Britain has slowed and in some cases investment has decreased.

2. **Political Implications:**

   - **Internal Politics of the European Union:** Brexit has had an impact on the internal politics of the EU, particularly in terms of cohesion and relations between member states.

   - **Domestic Politics of Britain:** Brexit has caused divisions in the domestic politics of Britain and the emergence of new political parties.

3. **Social Impact:**

   - **Immigration:** Britain's immigration policy has changed since leaving the European Union, causing social change and anxiety in some areas.

   - **Citizens' Rights:** The rights of citizens of EU countries to live and work in Britain have changed since Brexit, affecting personal and family life.

4. **International Relations:**

   - **Continental relations:** Brexit has created a new perspective on Britain's relations with the countries of the European continent.

   - **Global Impact:** Brexit has created new challenges and opportunities in international trade and relations.

### **Future Expectations:**

1. **Trade and Economic Strategies:**

   - **New Trade Agreements:** Britain will seek to sign new international trade agreements and strengthen global trade relations.

   - **Economic Development:** Britain will seek new economic strategies and increased investment.

2. **Political Solution:**

   - **EU relations:** Diplomatic efforts will continue to shape the future of Britain's relationship with the EU.

   - **International Relations:** Britain will be active in new international relations and alliances.

3. **Social and Cultural Change:**

   - **Immigration Policy:** Britain will review and adjust its new immigration policy.

   - **Civil Rights:** Britain can adopt new strategies to improve civil rights and security.

### **Conclusion:**

Brexit is a major political and economic change in Britain's departure from the EU that has had a significant impact on the outlook for the global economy and international relations. The Brexit process and its implications have had a profound impact on Britain's domestic and global politics. In the future, the consequences of Brexit and Britain's international relations will create new perspectives, which will play an important role in determining the course of world politics.